UPHESC Assistant Professor Psychology 2025 PYQs

Concept: The Mann-Whitney U test is the non-parametric counterpart of the independent t-test with about 95% power-efficiency.

1. Mann-Whitney U uses ranks of two independent groups – asymptotic relative efficiency ≈ 0.95 vs t.
2. Median test uses only above/below-median information → much less powerful (≈ 0.64).
3. Chi-square is for frequencies; Friedman is for related samples (k conditions).

Short trick: Two independent groups: t-test ↔ Mann-Whitney U (95% as powerful).

Concept: KMO and Bartlett's test check whether the data are suitable for factor analysis; they do not decide how many factors to keep.

1. Latent root (Kaiser) criterion – keep factors with eigenvalue > 1.
2. Scree plot (Cattell) – keep factors above the 'elbow'.
3. Velicer's MAP (minimum average partial) – a retention rule.
4. KMO (sampling adequacy) and Bartlett's sphericity – pre-analysis suitability tests.

Short trick: KMO-Bartlett = 'Can I factor?'; eigenvalue/scree/MAP = 'How many factors?'

Concept: Kruskal-Wallis H compares three or more independent groups on ranks – the rank-based version of one-way ANOVA.

1. One factor, k independent groups → one-way ANOVA / Kruskal-Wallis.
2. Repeated measures with k conditions → Friedman test (non-parametric two-way by ranks).
3. Factorial/ANCOVA have no single standard rank equivalent here.

Short trick: KW = k groups, one way; Friedman = same people, k conditions.

Concept: Mann-Whitney U is a rank test, so it needs data at least on an ordinal scale.

1. Scores of two independent groups are pooled and ranked; U is computed from rank sums.
2. Interval data with normality would call for the t-test instead.
3. Nominal/dichotomous frequency data → chi-square.

Short trick: Rank tests (U, H, Wilcoxon, Friedman, rho) = ordinal data.

Concept: Univariate analysis describes one variable at a time; correlation needs two variables.

1. Frequencies, percentages, mean/median/mode, SD – all describe a single variable.
2. Correlation shows the relationship between two variables → bivariate analysis.

Short trick: Correlation is a 'co-' measure – it always needs a partner variable.

Concept: Classical test theory: X = T + E, where E (obtained minus true score) is random measurement error.

1. E is assumed random: mean zero and uncorrelated with T.
2. Systematic error shifts all scores the same way and is absorbed into the 'true' score – it affects validity, not reliability.
3. Shared/unique variance are factor-analytic terms.

Short trick: X – T = E (random error); reliability = proportion of variance free of it.

Concept: A high item-total correlation means the item separates high and low scorers and measures the same thing as the whole test.

1. Discrimination: point-biserial item-total r is a standard discrimination index.
2. Homogeneity/internal consistency: items correlating with the total measure the same trait.
3. Difficulty is the proportion passing (p), not a correlation.

Short trick: Item-total r = D-index + homogeneity; p-value = difficulty.

Concept: Factor analysis checks whether a test's items group into the theoretical dimensions of the construct – factorial (construct) validity.

1. Content/face validity – judged by experts/appearance, no statistics.
2. Empirical (criterion) validity – correlation with an external criterion.
3. Construct validity – factor analysis, convergent–discriminant (MTMM) evidence.

Short trick: Factor analysis → factorial validity → a type of construct validity.

Concept: Visualization (guided imagery) is deliberately picturing a calm, pleasant scene to reduce stress.

1. Concentrative meditation focuses on one object, sound (mantra) or the breath.
2. Progressive muscular relaxation tenses and relaxes muscle groups.
3. Imagining a quiet beach = mental imagery → visualization.

Short trick: 'Envision' = visualization.

Concept: Splitting one test into odd and even halves and correlating them gives split-half (internal consistency) reliability.

1. The half-test r is stepped up with Spearman–Brown: $r_{tt}=\frac{2r_{hh}}{1+r_{hh}}$.
2. Test-retest – same test given twice; parallel form – two equivalent forms.

Short trick: Odd–even = one test, one sitting, two halves → split-half.

Concept: Eudaimonic well-being (Aristotle; Ryan & Deci; Ryff) is living in line with one's true self – realising one's potential.

1. Hedonic = pleasure, positive affect, life satisfaction (subjective well-being).
2. Eudaimonic = 'daimon' (true self) → self-realisation, meaning, growth.
3. Glory, pride or mere achievement are not its core.

Short trick: Hedonic – Happy feelings; Eudaimonic – rEalising the self.

Concept: EI is the ability to perceive, understand, use and regulate emotions in oneself and others.

1. Goleman's domains: self-awareness, self-regulation (managing emotions), self-motivation, empathy (recognising others' emotions), handling relationships.
2. A, B and D map directly onto these domains.
3. Merely 'feeling complex emotional ideas' is not an EI ability – EI is about recognising, understanding and managing emotions.

Short trick: EI = Know – Manage – Motivate – Empathise – Relate.

Concept: Hans Selye (1936/1956) described the body's non-specific response to any stressor as the General Adaptation Syndrome.

1. Stage 1 – Alarm reaction (sympathetic/adrenal mobilisation).
2. Stage 2 – Resistance (coping, high arousal sustained).
3. Stage 3 – Exhaustion (resources depleted → disease of adaptation).
4. Lazarus gave the cognitive appraisal (transactional) model; Solomon the opponent-process theory.

Short trick: Selye's GAS = A-R-E: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion.

Concept: Vroom's VIE theory has three separate beliefs: Expectancy (effort → performance), Instrumentality (performance → reward) and Valence (value of reward).

1. (A) describes Expectancy – true.
2. (R) describes Instrumentality – also true.
3. They are two independent links of the model; the belief that performance will be rewarded does not explain why effort is believed to raise performance.

Short trick: E: effort→performance; I: performance→reward; V: value of reward. Motivation = E × I × V.

Concept: Distributive bargaining assumes a fixed amount of resources (a 'fixed pie') to be divided – a win–lose situation.

1. One party's gain is the other's loss (zero-sum).
2. Integrative/collaborative bargaining tries to 'expand the pie' for win–win outcomes.
3. Third-party negotiation involves mediators, arbitrators, conciliators.

Short trick: Fixed pie → divide it → Distributive.

Concept: PTSD follows exposure to a traumatic event and is marked by re-experiencing, avoidance, negative mood/cognition and hyperarousal.

1. Intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares = re-experiencing.
2. Avoiding reminders of the trauma = avoidance cluster.
3. Phobia – irrational fear of an object/situation without a trauma memory; panic disorder – unexpected panic attacks.

Short trick: Trauma + flashbacks/nightmares + avoidance = PTSD.

Concept: The five-stage creative process (Wallas extended by Csikszentmihalyi): Preparation → Incubation → Insight → Evaluation → Elaboration.

1. Preparation – immersing in the problem.
2. Incubation – ideas churn below awareness.
3. Insight – the 'Aha!' moment (Wallas: illumination).
4. Evaluation – judging whether the idea is worth pursuing; Elaboration – working it out in detail.

Short trick: P-I-I-E-E: Prepare, Incubate, Insight, Evaluate, Elaborate.

Concept: Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that give quick, usually adequate, but not guaranteed solutions (Tversky & Kahneman).

1. Examples: availability, representativeness, anchoring-and-adjustment.
2. Framing, hindsight and overconfidence are specific biases, often produced by heuristics.
3. Algorithms, in contrast, guarantee a solution step by step.

Short trick: Rule of thumb = Heuristic; step-by-step guarantee = Algorithm.

Concept: A syllogism draws a necessary conclusion from two premises – the classic form of deductive reasoning (general → particular).

1. Example: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal.
2. Inductive reasoning goes from particular observations to a probable general rule.
3. 'Declarative' refers to a type of memory/knowledge, not reasoning.

Short trick: Syllogism → Deduction (Aristotle's logic).

Concept: Gestalt psychologists held that perceptual organisation is innate – the brain spontaneously organises sensations into wholes.

1. Laws of proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, Prägnanz work without learning.
2. They opposed the empiricist (Helmholtz) view that organisation is learned.
3. The 'partly innate, partly learned' view is a later interactionist position, not Gestalt.

Short trick: Gestalt = nativist: organisation comes naturally.